Reading-Writing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reading-Writing - Assignment Example He shares that today’s shows have a Sleeper Curve which challenges humans to think while watching. Johnson also states that multi-threading is very common in TV programs now unlike in earlier shows such as â€Å"Starksy & Hutch† or â€Å"Dragnet†. (p. 51) He goes on further to say that this new practice of watching TV has brought on other benefits aside from a smarter audience. The change in TV shows has made more money for the entertainment industry, more complex shows and a more intelligent audience. Steven Johnson writes that â€Å"the Sleeper Curve is the single most important new force altering the mental development of young people today, and I believe it is largely a force for good: enhancing our cognitive faculties, not dumbing them down† (p. 50). The Sleeper Curve is the entertainment’s way of making culture smarter. It is evident in the gradual layering of plots in TV programs such as â€Å"24† where a single scene can present more than one plot. In earlier generations, a show’s plot was so simple. â€Å"The Nanny† was a series that revolved around an unconventional nanny who managed an uptight British widower’s household and took care of his kids. â€Å"Beverly Hills 90210† was about a group of teenagers trying to survive high school. â€Å"Melrose Place† gave audiences a glimpse of the lives of people living in an apartment complex. The stories in these shows and other similar ones were easy enough to understand t hat missing one episode would not affect understanding of the whole story. They did little to get the viewers glued to the screen. People watched without exerting much effort in critical thinking and analysis. Nowadays, however, shows like â€Å"Prisonbreak†, â€Å"24†, â€Å"Sopranos†, â€Å"CSI: Las Vegas† and the like cause viewers to eagerly anticipate and theorize why particular events happened or what events would probably

CheckPoint-Audience Analysis and Reception Essay Example for Free

CheckPoint-Audience Analysis and Reception Essay Communication is the most important key to any relationship, in the business world it is the way to keep the business running smoothly. This is why analyzing the audience is the most important task a writer can perform in order to effectively communicate or present any information to their audience. In this particular scenario, I have been assigned to write a report to the management team at my work place. Therefore it is important for me to analyze all of the characteristics of each of the member of my management team to ensure the effectiveness of my report. Since I will be writing a formal report, I would need to ensure that it is legible, use appropriate wording in order to create the proper business tone in my report. I need to ensure that all information written on my report is accurate. Check that all of my sources are credible and that there won’t be any misunderstanding in the report. The writer’s credibility is an extremely important thing to have; this is why I would have to make sure that all of the data posted on my report is accurate. By doing so it will show the management team that I am trustworthy, reliable and I get the job done correctly. I would also need to think about what would motivate them and interest them in my report. Therefore, I would make sure my report includes facts that would motivate them such as weekly and monthly sales reports, financial gains and productivity. These are all very important points for me to keep in mind when writing the report. If my report was poorly written and not in a business professional tone, would make me look bad in their eyes. Also failing to provide accurate information or present it in a professional way, will affect my credibility greatly. They will not see me as the honest hard worker that I am. They would instead see me as an uncaring person that did not bother to do the research and gather facts to present before them. Also if my report does not contain any information that does not pertain to the management team, I would lose their interest quickly.

Pentonville Prison History

Pentonville Prison History Introduction This dissertation will identify the history of prisons and how Pentonville prison came about in 1842. It will bring in Millbank as an example to Pentonville, as it was also a convict prison. It will also identify how the crimes committed and the punishment placed on criminals in London changed when Pentonville prison was built. It will also show how the prison reform changed the prison and how it affected Pentonville prison. Law and order in London will also be identified. Information and research will be obtained from The National Archives in Kew and also the Galleries of Justice in Nottingham. It will also include primary sources such as the Times Newspaper, The Guardian and also Parliamentary papers. Secondary information will be found at the University library and also Liverpool library. During the nineteenth century, the state of prisons changed dramatically. The government and officials began to notice that crime rates were not being reduced and the prison system needed to be improved as it was out of date. Many victims of crime in the Eighteenth Century were choosing not to prosecute the criminals due to receiving community disapproval if the criminal was a local person who was liked or had a big family in the surrounding towns and villages, it was expensive for the rate payer, travelling to the trial was time consuming and a waste of time for many matters as the criminal would often be let off with a light penalty. Many offenders never even ended up in prison and many were never even recorded. Pentonville Prison was built in 1842, and was an original structure within society in this time period. It soon became a model for prison architecture and discipline throughout the majority of Europe. General Prison Information John Howard wrote a book in 1777 called ‘The State of the Prisons in England and Wales this particular book captured widespread public attention. The consequence of this book was that it exposed the English to other countries. It also suggested that the book was severely trailing behind all the other countries when it came to prisons and punishment. His main concern was to establish a new and better organisation of the prison. He believed that a prison should not be like the actual world but tougher and place that people did not want to go to, a place in which they feared. The Penitentiary Act was written up by William Blackstone and William Eden but was influenced by John Howard. It was this act that put the harsh prison conditions into place such as; uniforms, coarse diets and hard labour. Mug shots were created in the 1850s and 1860s by a Select Committee of the House of Lords photographing the prisoners in 1863. By the 1870s, mug shots were common and the Home Office saw the advantages of them. By the end of the century fingerprinting had been introduced. Not everyone who was convicted of a criminal offence was known as a convict. Anyone who had committed a minor offence would be known as a prisoner. A minor offence could receive a sentence of anything from a few days to a maximum of two years with or without hard labour. A minimum offence for penal servitude was three years which increased to five years in 1864 for a first offence but seven years for any subsequent offences. The silent system allowed for prisoners to undertake work tasks in a workroom in complete silence. The silent system however proved to be very difficult to obtain and led to it being ineffective. More staff was required to monitor and observe the prisoners. The separate system was to prevent any association with the other prisoners and as a result would become excited about the visits that the chaplain was required to do. The separate system was put in place to prevent any contamination and corruption of the vulnerable prisoners. However, a fenian convict serving fifteen years by the name of Michael Davitt spent 9 months in solitary confinement in Millbank. His health suffered leaving the medical officer with no other option but to order him to half an hour exercise. If the prisoner or convict was a family breadwinner then there family often asked the parish for help but if in the worse situation and the parish were unable to help or they refused then the family would have to enter the workhouse. Cells The cells had tiny paned windows which were so high that it was necessary to stand on them to look out, but this was a punishable offence. Cells often became hot and stuffy in the summer and cold in the winter. The cells were often poorly lit, but when gas was introduced the cells had gas jets placed in the cells but they were soon placed behind thick, fixed glass windows due to the prisoners committing suicide by self asphyxiation or hanging. There was rarely a mattress for the prisoners that were in their first of their sentence, this changed to a hard plank bed in 1865. Oscar Wilde describes the Victorian prison cells darkness stating that ‘it is always twilight in ones cell, as it is always midnight in ones heart. This statement identifies that the cells were very depressing for the person within it especially when the lighting was also minimal. If the convict was under the age of 50 then he was issued with a plank bed that had no mattress for one month. The surgeon was the only person that could have changed this uncomfortable fate for the prisoner if he had deemed that the convict or prisoner was unfit to sleep without a mattress. Oscar Wilde recalled that the plank bed ‘caused him to shiver all night long and that, as a consequence of its rigors, he had become an insomniac.'[1] A report that was made to the Royal Commission on the Penal Servitude Acts in 1879 claimed that the bed clothes could sometimes be covered with faeces. Complaints were made about Pentonville cells being unbearably cold. This is somewhat arguably ironic due to the efforts that were put in place to create the ideal model cells. The first commissioners report in 1843 was no more than two pages long. It commented on the temperature of the cells ‘the ventilation of the cells, and the means of maintain an equable and proper temperature. Pentonville was originally designed to hold 520 prisoners whilst under the ‘separate system. Individual cells were 13 feet long, 7 feet wide and 9 feet high. They were placed in cells that contained a table, chair, a cobblers bench, hammock, broom, bucket and a corner shelf which held a pewter mug and dish, a bar of soap, a towel and a bible. When the cells were inspected by the inspectors the prisoners were required to have these items in specific places. Millbank prison held up to 1000 cells, making it the largest prison in London during the 19th century. The Times Newspaper from 1850-1900 shows a few extracts which describe both the criminals within Millbank and also the state of the prison. An extract on the 23rd January 1850 shows how a warder was attacked by a prisoner. The opening sentence went as follows, ‘Saturday morning last the interior of the Millbank Penitentiary was again the scene of a most desperate outrage. The word ‘again identifies the lack of control that the warders had on the prisoners within the prison. The incident on the 23rd January resulted in a warder by the name of ‘Balls ‘ending up in hospital after a violent attack from one of the prisoners. Balls let a prisoner out of his chamber to allow him to clean out his chamber pot, the prisoner then followed Balls back to his cell and hit him over the head. The prisoner was able to cause several severe injuries to the head, face and arms before several other warders were able to secure the prisoner in a ‘strong cell. Punishment The separate system was to ensure that the prisoners would not interact with other criminals in whom they would be able to become friendly with and join forces with when they got out of prison. This was an attempt to stop convicts from becoming repetitive criminals and to stop the revolving door theory. When the convicts were moved around the building they were made to wear a mask with a beak on to prevent other convicts seeing their faces but Colonel Jebb argued in his discipline and management of convict prisons report that ‘the mask or peak does not prevent prisoners from recognising each other in the prison'[2] They were also stripped of their identities when they entered the prison. The prisoners would also become overly bored sitting in their cells on their own that they would eventually beg for work to overcome their boredom and prevent them from going mad. The Times Newspaper described the separate system in 1842 as the ‘maniac making system indicating that people believed that the system was not a good idea and it would just send men and women insane but still the Home office agreed with the separate system. Two thirds of English prisons had adopted the separate system in 1856. The fourth commissioners identifies that the prisoners were strictly separated from fellow prisoners. They were supplied with books which were usually the bible and books that provided information and instruction on a particular trade. They were allowed to attend school twice a week and also according the report the prisoners were also provided with sufficient diets, clothing and also bedding but this can be argued due to the plank beds and also the poor diets which resulted in many prisoners falling ill. The prisoners were required to endure 18 months in complete solitude in 1842, but after many prisoners became mentally insane the prison authorities felt that the time period should be decreased to 12 months in 1848 then decreased again to 9 months in 1853. Even though they were in their cells on their own, the man in the next cell was only two feet away. The major problem for the separatists at this time was the belief held by many that the long periods of isolation for prisoners created insanity. Pentonville reduced periods of separation at Pentonville which was much to the Chaplains displeasure. When Pentonville separation time period was decreased to 9 months it was the same amount of time that the prisoners at Parkhurst had to endure. Millbank Prison did not allow criminals to have visitors without an order from the Home secretary of state, this was part of the separate system as the government believed that if the prisoner saw anyone from the outside then they would go back to their ‘old ways. When Henry Mayhew visited Pentonville he found from interviews with the prisoners that they disliked the separate system with a passion. Even though prisoners were not allowed to talk or communicate to fellow inmates, it is evident that many tended to disobey this rule. The 6th Commissioners report states that 220 prisoners committed offences whilst being within Pentonville, and that 110 out of the 220 were for attempts to communicate with other prisoners either by writing, signs or verbally. The total number of prisoners placed within Pentonville during the year 1847 was 701, so only 220 prisoners committing offences within the prison walls shows that many prisoners were afraid and obeyed the system. 341 of these prisoners were existing prisoners from the previous year whilst 360 prisoners were received to Pentonville in the course of the year. However, a new system known as the ‘stage system was put in place in 1853 to enforce discipline and also to reward good behaviour. Penal servitude was divided into three stages, the first being 9 months in solitary confinement, the second being where the convict was required to work in close association with other prisoners and the last stage was where the convict or prisoner was kept under supervision by the police when they were released. Convicts were divided into classes and could be promoted to the next class by earning ‘mark for hard work. A maximum of 8 hours could be earned in one day. The first and second class were allowed tea instead of gruel before they were sent to bed. Du Cane states that the main elements of prison were ‘hard labour, hard fare and hard board Hard labour was both hard and pointless, it included labour such as Oakum picking, the crank, the treadmill and also the shot drill. The treadmill involved walking up revolving stairs for ten minutes then having a five minute break. This happened for several hours. It was invented by William Cubitt in 1818 and the prison discipline society advised that every male should participate in 12,000 feet. The treadmill could be very dangerous for those who were new to it and also for those who were exhausted. The Shot drill were heavy cannon balls weighing 32lb were passed from one to another down a long line of prisoners. It was not adopted by many prisons. The conditions at Pentonville were incredibly better than those at Newgate. The prisoners at Pentonville were also healthier than prisoners at another prison. Like Millbank, prisoners were made to work and participate in jobs such as picking tarred rope and weaving. The jobs in which they made to do were pointless jobs which served no purpose. The Times Newspaper states that the hours of work in the summer were 6am till 9pm and 7am till 8pm in the winter. The prisoners were separated into classes when they entered the prison which resulted in the same atmosphere that people endured outside the prison. They were also made to work; it was believed that if prisoners worked whilst in prison then they would not have time to think of committing more crimes. They were forced to do work such as shoemaking, tailoring, painting, cleaning, whitewashing the prison, washing and sewing prison clothes. In 1864, Oakum picking was introduced as part of the hard labour programme. This involved separating the fibres of old ship ropes so they could be re used. In 1870 two cranks were introduced to a local prison, Nottingham Gaol, this was a box with a handle on the side in which the prisoner was made to turn round in a circle. The prisoner was required to make 10,000 revolutions per day before breakfast. The task of the crank was one task that was completely pointless, it served no meaning but to irritate the prisoner and increase their upper body strength so they were able to complete more heavy duty work whilst in prison and also when they leave prison and get a job. Henry Mayhew states that ‘it is impossible to imagine anything more ingeniously useless'[3]. Labour was both long and without any intentions of ceasing. The 1865 Prison Act accepted that the treadmill, crank, capstan, shot drill and stone breaking were all types of first class hard labour and that if a prisoner or convict was not sentenced to hard labour then they were still required to participate in light labour during their sentence. Prisoners were made to work an hour and a half before breakfast, 3 hours before lunch and a further 4 hours in the afternoon totalling 8 and a half hours hard labour a day. The prisoners returned to their cells at 6pm and were allowed to have two hours after their dinner to sit on their own and reflect or read the bible. When the prisoner or convict was serving a long sentence, these two hours would become incredibly boring. When public hangings were abolished in 1868, Pentonville had trapdoors installed over a 12 feet deep brick lined pit within the exercise yard. Albert Pierrepoint described the trap in 1931 as ‘having two leaves each some 8 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet 6 inches wide.'[4] The prison was also a school to teach hangmen, there was a one week course at Pentonville in which men got involved in to become a hangman. They were taught how to calculate and set the drop of the gallows and also how to carry out an execution efficiently including the speed of pulling the trapdoor open and also how long a human takes to die from strangulation if the neck did not break from the drop. Albert Pierrepoint states that the hangman trainees used a dummy called ‘Old Bill whilst training. The last training course held at Pentonville was the week beginning 25th April 1960 for two men called Samuel Plant and John Underhill. Whipping was also a major punishment in the nineteenth century. The Home office in 1878 took responsibility for prisons and created three categories for the birch which was used for whipping. A thin strip of birch was used for juveniles up to the age of ten, a medium for ten to 16 years and thick for individuals over the age of 16 years. The birch was applied to naked buttocks whilst feet were kept together and shirts lifted. The effects of whipping were a little bleeding but mainly severe bruising. Once the pain of the whipping was over and the aching of the bruising had gone down, criminals could carry on committing crimes within a matter of weeks. The birch and cat was also used on prisoners all over the country for punishing prisoners who assaulted or swore at warders. Both male and female criminals sentenced to transportation were sent to Millbank before they were transported although Pentonville has been viewed as being the first stage of transportation as Forsythe states ‘the portal to the penal colony'[5]. Transportation was a sentence in which could have held a life sentence or for a set amount of time. It was seen as a humane version of execution. At one point, returning from a transportation sentence was a hanging offence. Both major and petty crimes could result in the transportation punishment during the 17th to 19th centuries. Until 1868, convicts could be transported to a penal colony on the other side of the world. Transportation criminals were originally sent to the colonies in North America until the American War of Independence in 1775.Britain was then forced to send their criminals to Australia. The 4th commissioners report on the 10th March 1846 identifies that 382 prisoners had completed their period and had been removed from Pentonville to Van Diemens land which was an Island of Tasmania but it is now part of Australia. They were placed into classes which were as follows, the ticket of leave class was the first which contained 288 prisoners, Probationary pass holders was the second which contained a further 78 prisoners and then the penal gangs class was the third which contained the last 16 prisoners. Ticket of leave was where the prisoner had the advantage of freedom within the colony, the probationary pass holders were able to work for themselves with restrictions and the penal gangs were where the convict was required to serve a certain period after they arrived in their allocated location. There was also a journey in July 1845 in which a total of 100 prisoners were transported on the Royal George Seymour ship. The commissioners report states that they received a sati sfactory account of the prisoners conduct for the journey and the arrival. Prisoners who were sentenced to transportation were perceived as being the ‘pick of the criminal crop'[6] identifying that the criminals who were sent abroad to serve their sentence were the worst kind of people and criminals. Food Prisons were run like machines and all the prisoners within Pentonville prison could have their breakfasts delivered to them in ten minutes. The prisons were instructed to make the prisoners food as monotonous as possible as part of the hard fare factor and the prisoners had hard beds instead of hammocks as part of the hard board factor. A letter written to the Times editor by a Mr Robert Hosking, who was Pentonvilles governor, identifies the costs of convicts at the Pentonville Prison. He states that ‘convicts in Pentonville prison are actually rioting in gluttony'[7] due to lack of food. He identifies what the prisons have in relation to meals. The extract also identifies that if a prisoner is on surveillance for bad behaviour then they would receive less bread than the rest of the prisoners. The convicts diet consisted mainly of bread in which they receive a 10oz at breakfast, 5 oz at lunch and a further 5oz for their supper. Their diet included both carbohydrates and protein but very little else. The prisoners were given water gruel and a small loaf of brown bread. The cooks put a lot of salt in their food to add seasoning, but the salt made the prisoners thirsty which made swallowing the food incredibly hard and painful. The potatoes that were given to the prisoners were inedible and were rotten, whilst the suet pudding was both dry and tasteless with bit of suet visible to the naked eye. The 1864 report on the dietaries of convict prisoners claims that there were two separate diets within the prison, the first being the penal class diet and the second being the punishment diet. The penal diet consisted of the standard food allowance that the prisoners were entitled to such as porridge potatoes and bread but the punishment diet consisted of bread and water and every fourth day then they were allowed the penal class diet. Dartmoor was the only convict prison within the country that allowed its prisoners cocoa for supper three times a week. The committee recommended that the dietary needs for male convicts within separate confinement and also industrial employment consisted of 284oz per week of solid food which contained 148 oz of bread, 96oz of potatoes, 16oz of meat, 4oz of cheese and also 4oz of meat that was in soup. One prisoner commented on the suet pudding to the Gladstone Committee and stated that ‘mo matter how hungry a man might be, his stomach would naturally turn from it[8]. This identifies the extent of the ghastliness of the food in which convicts and prisoners were required to eat especially when some prisoners and convicts would eat candle ends and boot grease to control their hunger. Oscar Wilde told friends after leaving prison that the food was both revolting and also insufficient. The total cost of each prisoners diet was 3s 11/2d per week or 8l 3s 41/2 for the year. In the 4th commissioners report it mentions an increase in the diet expenses and the reason being due to the rise in the price of the flour and the potatoes. A Convict Prison Pentonville prison began to be constructed on the 10th April 1840 and was completed in 1842. The total cost of the building of the prison was  £84, 186 12s 12d and the total upkeep of each prisoner was 15s a week in the 1840s which is the equivalent of 75p in todays money. Two acts had to be passed to allow the building of the prison. The convict service was established in 1850 when Millbank, Pentonville and the hulks became under the governments control. Like Millbank prison which was the first convict prison in London, Pentonville was built on the ideas and plans of Jeremy Bentham. The Pentonville Prison followed Benthams Panopticon idea; the panopticon idea was the criminals were under constant surveillance. The Prison had a central hall which was surrounded by five wings, which all members of staff were able to survey from the central hall. Pentonville soon became the model prison for all British prisons during the Victorian era and over the next six years a further 54 other prisons were built throughout Britain with the same design as Pentonville. Even though Pentonville was known as the model prison, prisoners still managed to escape from it. An extract in the Times in December 1850 identifies George Hackett, a professional criminal who mastered in bus muggings and had a criminal history with the Thames police and Mansion House. Hackett as stated by the Times made an ‘extraordinary escape from the Pentonville (model) prison. When investigation went into place, it was found that Hackett escaped the police court with another man, and a turnkey had received a large amount of money. Hackett was serving a sentence for a crime that he committed on the 29th May 1850 in which he nearly murdered a police constable. He was sentenced to 15 years of transportation. The investigation resulted in authorities believing that the turnkeys had been tampered with. The next day on the 4th December, the Times commented on this speculation once again by stating that the government inspectors of prisons launched an inquiry into a private inve stigation into the escape of Hackett. They believed that the turnkeys and the officers had helped Hackett escape from the prison which identifies that the officials at the prison were easily influenced and like Millbank held little control of the convicts. There was six main convict prisons throughout Britain- Millbank was used as a transportation dept, Pentonville as a model separation, Portsmouth and Portland for associated labour, Parkhurst for juvenile delinquencies, Brixton was a womans prison and Dartmoor was for invalids that were unable to participate in labour. Local prisons were vastly different from a convict prison due to the difference in skills. There was such a high turnover of prisoners within a local prison whilst prisoners within a convict prison served longer periods of time. A prisoner within the convict prison would have more than likely done time in a local prison before being transferred to the convict so the officers within the convict prisons were well informed of each prisoner as the paper work and inspection had already been done for convict officers. There were also distinct differences within the prisoners accommodation, discipline, work tasks and the general treatment of the prisoners. If a convict was well behaved during his sentence then he could be entitled to their sentences being shortened but a local prisoner who was sentenced to a maximum of two years did not have the option of having the sentence shortened whether they were well behaved or not until 1898. In 1877 these differences became minimal as the government took over all prisons in Britain including the local prisons. Each prison throughout the country was required to have school staff ‘at an additional expense of  £2,230.'[9]The convict prison has school staff on site from 1870 onwards and the local from 1879 onwards. The 4th Commissioners report in 1846 identifies that the state of Pentonville prison was in a perfect state of repair and only several important additions had been made to the prison during the years 1845-1846 one of these being the erection of a ‘complete apparatus for the manufacture of gas for the use of the establishment'[10]. In the 6th Commissioners report in 1847-48 it claims that an additional six sittings had been made within the chapel and also a fire main was laid down in order to supply the engine with water from a large tank in the roof. It also claimed that the ventilating, warming and cooking apparatus were in good order but complaints from the prisoners perceives a different story as they constantly complained of the cold cells. Prisoners When a convicted prisoner was sent to prison they travelled in a hearse like omnibus which was nicknamed the Black Maria when they went from the courts to the prison. They would then begin their prison journey in the reception ward where they were made to strip naked and had their clothes and possessions confiscated of him. They were then placed into a bath of waist high water which tended to smell like carbolic acid, this bath was not to clean them but to erase their original selves and replace it with their new prison lives. Their heads were shaved and the prisoners were not allowed to grow their hair till 3 months before the end of their sentence. Uniforms were issued which were different colours or markings depending on the prison sentence that the person is serving. Old or repaired boots were also issued to each prisoner but underwear was not issued till late nineteenth century. His name was changed to a number which he would be known as for the time he spent within the prison. If the prisoner was a repetitive convict then the number would be different each time. Each prisoner was allowed one visit every 6 months and one letter every 6 months, which made prisoners feel very lonely but with their I.Ds stripped they were made to feel like completely different men to what they were when they entered the prison. The warder also listened in on the conversations and watched to make sure that nothing was being passed between the prisoner and the visitor. The warder also timed the meeting by using a sandglass which allowed the meeting to be no longer than fifteen minutes. The longer the prisoner was in prison the shorter the time period for visits became. Prisoners serving within the second year were allowed visits every 4 months and prisoners within the third year or more were allowed visits every three months. The letters that the prisoners wrote to family and friends were censored and read by the governor and the chaplain before they were sent off. They were forbidden to write about the prison or other prisoners that were within it. The convicts at Pentonville Prison were made to wear dark grey outfits with ‘P.P embroided in red into the collar. The P.P stood for Pentonville Prison. The first ever mention of a prisoner having a structured daily routine was in 1865, the daily routine of a prisoner from this date was as follows: they were woken at 5.45am by the sound of a bell and returned to their beds at 8pm. They were allowed an hour or half an hour of exercise which was required to be done in silence within the special yards. After, they were made to work for a further 8 hours. The prisoners day would include waking up, working, eating meals, visiting the chapel, exercising, and an inspection ending with the lights being put out. The routine differed on a Sunday with the bell ringing slightly later and the day containing church services and exercise. Prisoners were made to endure 3 chapel services every Sunday, Christmas day and also Good Friday. The chapel was only able to accommodate half the prisoners so each prisoner was required to attend two services on a Sunday and then one upon the following. Daily prayers were read within the chapel every morning and evening. Each prisoner would attend one of these daily services. This was to cleanse the prisoners soul and make them a better person when they were released back into society. It was attempts into making the prisoner go back into work rather than result to crime. In the morning they were allowed out of their cells to have a wash with which a bucket of water was provided, this water would then be used to clean their cells and tin ware. This was also the time in which they were required to clean out their slop buckets and roll up their bedding, which had to be done correctly. Not all prisoners were guilty when they were sent to prison, an example of this is a man named Valentine Bambrick who was a recipient of the Victorian Cross. He was sent to prison for protecting a woman against a man named Henry Russell, whilst protecting her in a fight broke out and Russell later accused Bambrick and a woman named Charlotte Johnson of stealing his medals and violent assault. Bambrick had his Victorian Cross revoked by the Royal Warrant in December 1863. He fell into a deep depression and after writing a letter protesting his innocence he committed suicide by hanging himself in his cell in Pentonville Prison. The 6th Commissioners report shows that half the prisoners in Pentonville in 1847-48 were between the ages of 20-25 years old and two thirds were unmarried. One third of 701 prisoners had been imprisoned in other places of confinement beforehand, 74 had been imprisoned twice before and 27 had been imprisoned three times before. Even with the harsh prison regulations and conditions, people still chose to continually break the law and find themselves back in Pentonville; five men during 1847-48 were serving their tenth time within Pentonville. Health Prisoners were often observed and it was found that due to the separate system many prisoners would leave prison suffering from crying outbursts and hysteria, some had to cover their ears due to the noise being too much for them to cope with. Others often found themselves daydrea

Yersinia pestis †Infection, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment Essay

Yersinia pestis – Gerneal Infection, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment Yersinia pestis, the culprit behind the infamous Black Death, spread by rat fleas, has cast a shadow over human civilization, taken the lives of countless peasants and nobles alike like a violent brute who murders invariably. There are three major forms of infection stages, the bubonic plague, the septicemic plague, and the pneumonic plague (primary and secondary), all are lethal if not treated with proper antibiotics. Due to similar symptoms, clinical diagnosis, the distinction between a common cold and a lethal infection is made difficult. However, though a potent murderer, Yersinia pestis can be easily eliminated by antibiotic treatment; survivors of the disease may be scarred. The plague has always been a shadow overcastting the dawn of mankind; it had hid in the darkness, where the rodents roam and the poor dwell; it had unleashed its terror upon, claiming the souls of nobles and peasants alike. There are a total of five major plague outbreaks, including the infamous Black Death of medieval Europe, which wiped away half of its population. Yersinia pestis, the culprit behind the Black Death, are Gram-negative bacteria that are septicemic and extremely infectious. Though humans are highly susceptible to the microorganism, its main hosts are rodent species such as rats and squirrels, and are only transmitted onto humans when infectious fleas regurgitates animal blood while feeding on us. Yersinia pestis infection comes in three forms: bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic; the pneumonic plague is the deadliest. The rodent epidemic is transmitted unto humans when Y. pestis â€Å"are transmitted by fleabite, enters the lymphatic [system] 2 and migrate to the re... ...6. Microorganisms and Bioterrorism. Ed. Anderson, Burt, Friedman, Herman, and Maaro Bendinelli. Springer: 2006. Kopp, Elizabeth, and Medzhitov, Ruslan. â€Å"A Plague on Host Defense.† The Journal of Experimental Medicine. . â€Å"Plague Fact Sheet.† Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. 30 March, 2005. 26 July, 2006. . â€Å"Plague Prevention and Control.† Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Department of Health and Human Services. 30 March, 2005. 26 July, 2006. . VeriMed Healthcare Network. â€Å"Plague.† Medline Plus. 17 June, 2005. 26 July, 2006. .

Cultural Behavior Essay

Culture is a very important factor that should be determined in every occasion, across the globe. Knowing once culture enhances the spirit of solidarity through understanding one another despite the differences of nationality. It creates communication and it clears the communication. One of the biggest problems today is the miscommunication of people despite the advancement in telecommunication industries that delivers a wider range of means of communication. One might ask what culture could do; obviously it can create good rapport between people and between nations. Having a cultural intelligence is a plus factor but it doesn’t mean that, a person without it can never mingle with a person with a different culture. Cultural intelligence entails a lot of things, most importantly it can help-us manage cross-cultural differences moreover it can help eliminate racism. To be specific, cultural intelligence can lower the cultural barriers caused by the terms, ‘us’ and ‘them’ and this allows you to predict what ‘they’ are thinking and how they will react to your behavior patterns through becoming aware with the cultural differences as well as its similarities; and it harness the power of cultural diversity. In our world today that is fast-paced, companies and their business managers who interact with employees, customers, partners, competitors, among others who are diverse cultural intelligence is important. Hosting an international conference of sorts will not be possible without knowing who the participants are. Making a successful affair with other countries means tapping their soft spot. That is possible by studying what please them and respecting what they believe in, not only that, but their practices, values, expectations, attitudes, and ideologies. Those can be boiled down to one thing, knowing the culture because it is the â€Å"lens† through which you view the world. It entails the centrality of one’s attention, the perception and the expression. In this paper, there are two countries that should be given importance of – Brazil and Turkey. The former is known for their expertise in playing football while the latter is known for their good-looking men, as I would put it. BRAZIL, â€Å"The Land of Contrasts† This country is the fifth largest country in the world, and the largest nation in Latin America. Having the culture name of Brazilian, and their people are called depending on gender – Brasileiros for boys and Brasileiras for girls. In the late sixteenth century Portuguese introduced a Romance language called Portuguese, then this language is now the widely-spoken language in the country. Roman Catholic is the predominant religion. The Brazilians prides in themselves being democratic with race, they do not have prejudices over the different citizens that reside in Brazil. This ideology shapes their perception in terms of cultural behavior. This is not an assessment of complete non-existence of racial discrimination, but compared to other nations like the United States, in Brazil the expression is far more subtle and discreet. To add proof, the word â€Å"jeito† is familiar in Brazil which means that nothing is set in stone. Aside from those verbal greetings, there are things that should be learned about Brazil. One of this is their body language because becoming aware of this could help a person avoid any trouble in this country. For some countries, okay or OK hand signal means an approval or giving a nice reaction to other person but in this country it is a rude gesture. For example, in the Philippines the okay hand signal can brighten someone’s day, it is a simple gesture but it could mean a lot of positive meaning. Some politician even uses this for their campaign during election. When a Brazilian expresses appreciation, s/he may appear to pinch his/her earlobe between thumb and forefinger while to other counties it could mean that a person is shy or ashamed of something s/he has done. The â€Å"fig† is placing the thumb between the index and middles finger. This indicates a sincere invocation of luck towards another person. When the fingertips were flicked underneath the chin it means that the person doesn’t know the answer. But for other countries it indicates that the person is thinking or in a deep thought. It is common practice to almost every country to have privacy, may it be about personal life or whatever. Privacy is a concept of personal space. This is an event the Brazilians do not seem to care because lack of space is what they are used to. A crowded place is an appealing space for them. Touch and physical expression is evident in their culture. Being informal can be seen with the way women and men easily express their emotions through touch. There is a saying that time is gold. It applies to most of the countries around the world, especially in this time and age where you have to keep up with the fast-changing world. When it comes to time and work, some regions are casual about it. There are two cities in this country that are strict when it comes to following time especially business meetings. These are San Paulo and Rio, as for the latter, personal and social events are the things considered casual. Main meal happens at midday while light meal happens at night. Having good manners and etiquettes or the lack of it is a big issue. It shows how a person was raised and it shows ones upbringing. It is also important because it deals with a person’s reputation and his/her identity. When entertained into someone’s house, the guest should send flowers saying â€Å"Thank You† to the hostess, for it shows politeness. This shows the satisfaction and appreciation of the hospitality a hostess have shown. This is also a way to build a good impression. However, one should take note of the color of the flower to be given because purple-colored flowers are for funerals alone but it is fine to send out color violet. Saude (Sah-OO-Day) or Viva (Vee-va)are words that expresses â€Å"cheers† during toasts. Hello and goodbye, use good eye contact while handshaking and make sure that you handshake with everyone present. Stay away from phases such as, â€Å"Is it true that everyone in Brazil is either very rich or very poor? † It is very likely you will be talking with someone that isn’t either one. Brazilians usually address teachers, doctors, priests, and other professionals using their title followed by their first name—Professor Joao, Doutora Maxine or Presidente Henrique. Making a successful business in Brazil means adhering to their business custom, this helped a lot because as I have said before it can make you close to your â€Å"would-be business partner. † To have an â€Å"executive† connotation, wearing a three-piece suit is advised because office workers are associated with two-piece suit. Wearing conservative attire with manicured nails are important for women who are transacting business. In making appointments, make it in two weeks advance and â€Å"out of nowhere† calls are not good especially at business and government offices. This could mean impoliteness that would lead to the impression of disrespect to the concerned person or people. The key to business success in Brazil is to be prepared in committing long term resources, may it be money or time. In every business meetings, their standard operating procedure is that the host starts the business discussions and it usually begins with small talks. TURKEY The official name is Republic of Turkey, and its capital is Ankara. Turkey is a crossing between two unique cultures from the European and Middle Eastern boundaries. The society is characterized with nationalism patriotism. A combination of traditional and modern views, the society attributes significantly to their ancestors. The rapid modernization of the country had contributed to the success of its market. One of the nice things about people of different nationality is that they have the unique form of greetings. It is normal to greet the Turkish with â€Å"Asalamu alaykum† which means peace be upon you, and the common reply to this is, â€Å"Wa alaykum salam† or peace be with you. It is normal to every tourist or every visitors of foreign land to know the hidden meanings of body language of the people in that particular country. That is an advantage so that a person would know what or what not to do. It is customary to greet Turkish counterparts with a handshake, failure to do so may be considered rude. Women are expected to extend their hand first as the men awaits this gesture. An eye contact with Turkish counterparts while speaking depicts sincerity. When the thumb is placed between first two fingers it signifies insult and the person doing it is being rude. Wagging the head in the US means â€Å"no†, but in this country it means â€Å"I don’t understand†. Personal space does not matter to Turks in fact they consider it as unfriendly. That is why backing away when a Turks stand close to you is not good. This shows aloofness that could trigger to becoming indifferent. Turks have a â€Å"polychromic time†, they are multitasked that they do several activities at the same time and continue several conversations about different topics. They can surely keep up with busy schedule because they manage to do one thing at the same time. This also shows that the Turks are good in dividing their attention, it also shows that they are good in doing rush works and other stuff. Reputation precedes a person’s identity. Making a reputation is through the guidelines of having good manners in almost everything a person does. This also means having respect to other people and showing appreciation of ones culture. Respecting and paying courtesy to an elderly or the eldest person when arriving at a gathering or room is advised in this culture. Age is highly given importance in this country. Age signifies wisdom and respect from the society. In this country, public display of affection id discourages and is considered inappropriate. For establishing business in Turkey, there are business rules and regulations. These should be strictly followed if a businessman wants to make it big in this country. Turkish people celebrates the Turkish holidays, like the Ramadan (fasting period) and months like July and August are considered as annual holidays of Turkish business men. These dates should be avoided as the celebration is most considered rather than business ventures. It is important to schedule business appointments in advance to ensure that you avoid Turkish holidays. Punctuality is also important for the Turkish people. In all business contexts, when one should be late, he or she must immediately inform the persons concerned immediately. Islam also extends its influence in the society as all appointments and meetings should fit the 5 daily prayer times. The Turks prefer to do business with people they know and establish personal relationships with them for future benefits in their business ventures. Bibliography Bibikova Anastasia and Vadim Kotelnikov. Cultural Intelligence: Knowledge, Arts, & Skills. http://www. 1000ventures. com/business_guide/crosscuttings/cultural_intelligence. html http://www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br. html Nicol, Joni. Brazil. http://www. cyborlink. com/besite/brazil. htm Gorrill, Jodie R. A Turkish Culture Overview. http://www. communicaid. com/turkey-business-culture. asp

Nursing Care Study Essay

The aim of this nursing care study is to demonstrate that, as a student nurse, the writer is capable of developing and delivering the skills needed for assessing and addressing each individual patient’s care needs. Included in these set of skills, is the ability to develop critical thinking, decisive decision making and the ability to reflect on events so as to become a better health care provider. The patient in which the writer will discuss was based upon an eighty three year old man, pseudonym Mr. Scott who was admitted into accident and emergency via a referral from his general practitioner presenting with exacerbation chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with a history of congestive cardiac failure (CCF). On admission to accident and emergency Mr. Scotts’ team took arterial blood gases, ordered a pulmonary function tests and a chest X-ray. Prior to the exacerbation of Mr. Scotts’ condition he regularly attended a cardiac clinic due to being a long term sufferer of congestive cardiac failure and also attended pulmonary function clinic for tests (pulmonary function tests). Through these clinics Mr. Scott was educated on his medications and current condition. On admission of Mr. Scott, the writer decided to use the frameworks Roper Logan and Tierney (2000); Orem’s Self Care Framework (1995) and Gibbs (1988); which incorporates each tool of assessment known as, plan, implementation, evaluation, educate and reflection. Using the above frameworks, an improvement of Mr. Scotts’ current exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was seen to have been resolved and a new evaluation of Mr. Scotts’ care was developed. The chosen tool of reflection used is known as the Gibbs cycle of reflection. The writer applied this tool in order to evaluate the patient care. The rationale behind this was to attempt to fully understand reflection so as to apply this to everyday practice, thus improving as a student nurse. The Gibbs cycle involves a description of the incident, feelings and thoughts experienced plus the evaluation and analysis of the incident, conclusions and action plan (Gibbs, 1988). According to Barnett (2005) using a tool of reflection, to give an account of experiences in the clinical setting can aid the nurse to analyse and explore their feelings regarding patient care. Main body Eighty three year old Mr. Scott was admitted to accident and emergency with a referral from his general practitioner, presenting with a recurrent upper respiratory tract infection and a history of exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and congestive cardiac disease. Due to his history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Mr. Scott was sent for a chest x ray to assess the deterioration of his lungs due to his condition. (Alexander et al. 2009) Post admission into accident and emergency, Mr. Scott was sent to St. Pat, Thomas, Johns’ ward where the writer was working at the time as a student nurse. The writer found, when assessing Mr. Scott, that he lived alone, locally, was a widower of ten years and had two daughters who also lived near by. Although Mr. Scott had many concerns, he also had a good social network such as the support of family and a home help package of six hours a week, which included meals on wheels. The local public health nurse also called to see Mr Scott on a social capacity. Presently the main health concerns which faced both Mr. Scott and his family were; the deterioration of his dyspnoea, related to his chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; pressure ulcers, due to developing pressure ulcers while in hospital in previous years and anxiety from both Mr. Scott and his family due to the unknown. Reassurance was given and they were explained what care he was to receive. Issue # 1 Breathing. The key feature of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Barnett, 2009) is that of experiencing breathlessness. Being breathless for most patients can be both a stressful and frightening experience, which can raise anxiety levels. In past studies, men predominantly more than women were found to be affected by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); but in a recent study carried out by Meilan et al. (2007); research has found that cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are increasing in women world wide. The care Mr. Scott received was split in two, short term and long term care; both of which were constantly re-evaluated to maximise efficiency and quality of care. As part of the short term care plan the writer ensured that the bedside was set up with suctioning equipment help prepared for potential complications. To avoid complications, for example tachypnoea (rapid breathing) which is found to be an early indication of respiratory distress (Jevon and Evens 2001); the golden rule of thumb, depth and rate of breathing was monitored and recorded accurately (Jevon, 2010). Further reducing the risk of complications occurring, Mr. Scott was encouraged to sit up in a semi fowler position while enduring deep breathing exercises enabling him to breathe with greater ease and comfort. The rationale behind this was supported by a study carried out by Duggan et al. (2005). The long term goal was to ensure that an oxygen saturation level between 88%-94% is maintained (Alexander et al 2009). To monitor oxygen saturations levels, a pulse oximeter was place on Mr. Scott’s finger. The rationale for this is to detect oxygen absorption of haemoglobin (Plaice &Graham, 2000). A study carried out by Groeben (2003) shows that administering high concentrations of oxygen to patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) will reduce the respiratory drive, resulting in respiratory depression. This finding gives rationale to why a low flow of oxygen therapy is given to patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Humidification was added to Mr. Scotts’ oxygen therapy to warm and moisten the gas (Jevon and Ewens 2001) promoting secretions while enhancing patient comfort (Woodrow 2005).The rationale for this is that oxygen is known to dehydrate exposed membranes in the upper respiratory tract. Issue #2 Pressure ulcers. According to Lawrence et al (2010), every individual’s skin changes with time, this is a normal process of ageing. With this change comes a decrease in its elasticity and turgor, therefore with age one has to ensure that vital care of skin is given in an attempt to avoid skin breakdown. Due to Mr. Scott being an elderly man of eighty three, the writer was concerned about skin integrity. A tool known as the water low score was used in order to assess the likelihood of Mr. Scott developing any pressure ulcers during his stay in the hospital (Whiteing 2009). As Mr. Scott had developed pressure ulcers in a past experience, he would have an increased chance of a re-occurrence. In an attempt to prevent this situation the writer requested that Mr.Scott be nursed on an air mattress. (Stafford and Brower 2009). Issue #3 safety and delerium Anxiety is an emotional state influenced by past experience, which exists at a given point in time with a level of intensity related to an upcoming perceived threat (Passer and Smith 2007) The provision of information is extremely important to the patient as studies from, Biswajit et al. (2009) has shown that an informed patient with a good understanding of their condition reduces anxiety. Harvey (2002), recommend shared control in patient-practitioner interactions in that patients effectively participate in controlling important events. After liaising with Mr Scott’s’ medical team regarding his anxiety, a low dose of Alprazolam brand name Xanax 5mg, was charted and given in an attempt to relieve his anxiety. Alprazolam reduces anxiety within patients (De Witte, et al 2002). Medical care administered On admission to the ward Mr. Scotts’ medical team ordered pulmonary function tests. These tests determine what type and extent of restriction the patient is experiencing (Alexander et al 2009); furthermore indicating any increase/decrease in their condition (Daly 2009). Arterial blood gasses were checked in order to determine the amount of O2 to be administered reducing the risk of hypoxia. The rationale for taking arterial blood gases was to determine the bloods Ph and the O2 levels circulating within the blood. (Alexander et al 2009). A sputum sample was also attained from Mr Scott and sent to the lab for culture and sensitivity testing to trace which bacteria is present in the sputum so as to treat the infection (Gray et al 2008). Through reflection the writer recalled that oedema may be present in the lower extremities secondary to Mr. Scotts history of congestive cardiac failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and recorded the findings. The rationale for this was that, Mr. Scott suffered with congestive cardiac failure which increased the risk of developing oedema while in juxtaposition, putting increased pressure on functioning internal organs (Morley et al. 2009). During the writers assessment of Mr. Scott it appeared that he was suffering from a sudden onset of dyspnoea, (laboured breathing). Using critical thinking, the writer administered oxygen therapy at maximum of twenty four percent and immediately informed Mr. Scotts’ team on his condition. The rationale behind administering low dose O2 is due to the fact that the hypoxic drive can be decreased by administering a large dose of O2 leading to respiratory failure and the worsening condition of the patient, (Simmons et al. 2004). Using the Gibbs reflection cycle, the writer believes students should be under constant supervision in order to attain the knowledge of administering O2 to patients diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The medical team looking after Mr. Scott prescribed an antibiotic called Tazocin (4.5grams three times a day) to be given intravenously. The rationale for administering this antibiotic was to attempt to fight any infection that the patient may have developed. Also prescribed for Mr. Scott was a steroid and bronchodilator. The rationale for charting a steroid and bronchodilator was that, they are found to decrease inflammation in the air way and also to open up the airway (Greenstein et al 2009). Due to Mr. Scotts’ condition he was a long term user of oral Corticosteroids. Studies (Walters et al. 2008) have shown that, corticosteroids reduce the need for additional medical therapy while, also shorting hospital stay. On previous reflection (Gibbs 1988) as a student nurse, the writers’ knowledge developed due to reflection from previous patient care. The writer knew that due to Mr. Scott being on steroids, his blood sugar levels needed to be checked once a day as to ensure it stayed within the normal range. The rationale behind monitoring Mr. Scott’s’ blood sugar once a day was due to the side effects that are directly related to the administration of corticosteroids. Such side effects are as mouth ulcers, weight gain and increased skin thinning (mayoclinic.com). The writer encouraged Mr. Scott to rinse his mouth out with water post administration of oral steroids to reduce the development of oral ulcers or a candida infection of the mouth, (Greenstein et al 2009). The Roper, Logan, Tierney (RLT) 2000 nursing framework aided the writer in focusing upon the care study. This model encompasses key factors such as social status, environmental factors as well as the physical/ psychological factors which influence people in their daily lives (Roper et al 1991; 2003, Newton 1991). This model is designed to be adaptable to any patient and not for the patient to adapt towards the model of nursing; therefore it allows the nurse to care for each patient on an individual level (Roper et al 2000). Nursing can therefore be defined through this model in terms of helping people to prevent, alleviate, solve or cope with problems (actual or potential) when relating to the activities of daily living, (Roper et al. 1990). Conclusion Although the Roper Logan and Tierney’s’ model of nursing covers a holistic view, a model known as the Orem’s Self Care Framework according to Fawcett (1995) concentrates on the individuals’ self maintenance and regulation through a type of action known as self-care. This model could be seen as beneficial to Mr.Scott as a patient whom has been diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as a main part in maintaining good health is a good understanding/ communication, knowledge and education of how to care for ones’ self (Eva et al. 2009). The aim of this piece of work was to assemble while using tools of assessment an individual care plan. This was to be drawn up together with the patient and the writer so the system of care would be of an individual status. The writer also aimed to demonstrate that with critical thinking and decisive decision making the patient involved received intervention when needed. As the writer worked on the ward mentioned a strong therapeutic relationship had been built between patient and student nurse, this allowed the patient to feel at ease when asking questions regarding his condition enabling the writer to educate the patient at a higher understanding. Upon Mr. Scott’s discharge he expressed a better understanding of his knowledge about his condition, he also felt that if or when he experienced another exacerbation he would not feel as anxious and be better able to cope with it. Hearing this as a student nurse the writer felt that it had enhanced professional development for further nursing practice. Reference List: Alexander, M.,Fawcett, J., Runciman, P.2009. Disorders of the Respiratory System IN: Edmond, C., Mc Clean, I., Mc Clean, J., Wilson, L.(eds.) Nursing Practice Hospital and Home. 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Livingstone. Alexander, M.,Fawcett, J., Runciman, P.2009.Nursing Practice Hospital and Home. 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Livingstone. Barnett, M. 2005.Caring for a patient with COPD: a reflective account. Nursing Standard.[online].19, (36),pp41-46. Available from: http://web.ebscohost.com.remote.library.dcu.ie/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer. [Accessed 06 march2010]. Biswajit, C., Mohammed, I., Salaiman, M., Davies, L., Calverley, P., Warburton, C., Angus, R. 2009. A Study of patient Attitudes in the United kingdom Toward Ventilatory Support in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Journal of palliative Medicine. 12 (11), pp1029-1035. Daly,ML. 2009. Stopping A COPD Flare-up: quick action reduces a patient on the verge of respiratory failure. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 40 (8), p40. Duggan, M. Kavanagh, B. (2005). . Pulmonary atelectasis: A pathogenic perioperative entity.. Anesthesiology. 102 (4), 838-854. Fawcett, J. 1995. Analysis and Evaluation of Conceptual Models of Nursing. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: F.A Davis Company. Gibbs G. (1988) Learning by Doing: a guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit. Oxford Polytechnic. Oxford. Gray, RD., MacGregor, G., Noble, D., Imrie, M., Dewar, M., Boyd, AC., Innes, JA., Porteous, DJ., Greening, Ap. 2008. Sputum Proteomics in Inflammatory and Suppurative Respiratory Disease. journal of Respiratory and Critical care medicine. 178 (5) pp444-452. Greenstein, B., Dinah, G., Trounce, J. 2009. Trounce’s Clinical Pharmacology for Nurses.8th ed. Toronto: Churchill Livingstone. Groeben, H., Meier, S., Tankersley, G., Mitzner., Brown, H. 2003. Heritable differences in respiratory drive and breathing pattern in mice during anaesthesia and emergence. Journal of Anaesthesia. 91 (4),pp541-545. Harvey, N. 2002. Effective Communication. Dublin. Gill and Macmillan. Jevon, P. & Ewens, B. (2002). Monitonng the Critically III Patient. Oxford: Blackwell Science. 150-170. Jevon, P. 2010. How to Ensure Patient Observations Lead to Effective Management of Altered Consciousness. Nursing Times. 106 (6), pp16-22. Jevon, P. Ewens, B.. (2001). Assessment of a breathless patient. Nursing Standards. 15 (16), 48-53. Lawrence, H., Plawecki, J., Amrhein, D., Zortman, T. 2010. Under Pressure Nursing Liability and Skin Breakdown in Older Patients. Journal of Gerontological Nursing. 36 (2), pp23-25. march 2010]. Mayo Clinic.com. (Homepage). [Online]. Available from: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/steroids/HQ01431. [Accessed 26 March 2010]. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com.remote.library.dcu.ie/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD001288/frame.html. [Accessed 18 February 2010]. MeiLan, K., Postma, D., Mannino, D., Giardino, N., Buist, S., Curtis, J., Martinez, F. 2007. Gender and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. [online]. 176. pp1179-1184. Newton, C. (1991). The Roper, Logan, Tierney Model in Action.. Macmillan: Basing Stoke. 112-130. Passer, M., Smith, R. 2007. Psychology the science of the mind and behaviour.3rd ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill. Pendleton, D. Schofield, T. Tate P. Havelock P. (1984). ) The Consultation: .An Approach to Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 213-34. Plaice, J. & Graham, P (2004) Nursing care of a patient with Cystic Fibrosis. Journal of School of Nursing. 20 (1) 6-7. Rennard, S. 1999. Inflammation and Repair Processes in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American journal of Respiratory and Critical care medicine. 160 (5), pp 12-16. Roper, N., Logan. W, & Tierney, A (2000). The Elements of Nursing; a model of living.. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. 201-22. Roper, N., Logan. W, & Tierney, A.. (1990). The Element of Nursing . 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Livingstone. 230-60. Simmons, P., Simmons, M. 2004. Informed Nursing Practice: The Administration of Oxygen to Patients with COPD. Medsurg Nursing.13(2) pp82-86. Smeltzar, S., Bare, B., Hinkle, J., Cheever,K.2008.Brunner & Suddarth’s Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing.11th ed. New York.Lippincott. Stafford, AB., Brower, J. 2009. Effectiveness of Static Air Mattress Overlay and Static Air Seat Cushion For The Prevention Of Pressure Ulcers. Journal of Wound Ostomy & continence care. 36(2),Pp 50-53. The cochrane collaboration. 2009. Surgical Decompression for Cerebral Odema in Acute Ischaemic Stroke. The cochrane library. Walters, J., Gibson, P., Wood-Baker, R., Hannay, M., Walters, E. 2008. Systemic Corticosteroids for Acute Exacerbations of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. [Online]. Available from: http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com.remote.library.dcu.ie/cochrane/clsysrev

Religion in Brazil Essay Example

Religion in Brazil Essay Example Religion in Brazil Essay Religion in Brazil Essay Brazil, or  officially the  Federative Republic of Brazil is the largest country in both  South America  and the  Latin America  region. It is the worlds fifth largest country, both bygeographical area  and  by population over 190 million people   It is the largest  Lusophone, or portugese-speaking,  country in the world, and the only one in the Americas. Religion plays a major role in the lives of most of the people in this largest South American county. Here are some interesting Brazil facts: Around ninety percent of this population identifies with some sort of religion,   making it more religiously inclined than any other South American country. Only around 1% of its population do not believe in a God, or a supreme being in some form or another. The Brazilian Constitution of 1889 declared that there was no  official  religion in Brazil, so everyone was free to believe as they liked. That’s why, just like the USA, Brazil can practice freedom of religion according to the newest constitution that was adopted in 1988. Brazil’s religious make-up can be traced to the diverse groups of people who came in various forms – natives, invaders, immigrants, and slaves. In terms of Christian religions, the main churches in Brazil are: Catholic Protestant Methodist Episcopal Pentecostal Lutheran Baptist Its religious inclination is also extremely diverse, despite the fact that around three-quarters of the population claim to be Roman Catholics. In fact, there are more Catholics in Brazil than in any other country in the world. The Portuguese brought with them, not just the language (this  medical tourism   hub is the only  country  inSouth America  not dominated by Spanish), but also Roman Catholicism. Catholicism was introduced to Brazil when the European settlers arrived with the aim of ‘civilising’ the local native people. They built churches and brought religious leaders into the country to teach young and old alike the doctrines of Catholicism. During the 19th century, Catholicism was made the official religion of Brazil. This meant that Catholic priests were paid a salary by the government, including them in the political affairs of the country. As such, Catholicism became an integral part of the management and administration of Brazil and its people. Many of the Brazilian festivals are based on the Catholic religion. Protestantism is the second largest branch in Brazil religion. Those who are Christian but not Catholic are considered Protestant. Only about 15% of Brazilians claim to follow a Protestant faith of some kind. There are many branches of Christianity in Brazil. Among them the most popular are Baptist, Methodist, Neo-Pentecostalists, Old Pentecostalists, Presbyterian, Anglican and Episcopal Churches. Other Protestant beliefs and offshoots that make up smaller portions of Christians are Kardecist, Lutherans. The largest population of Protestants are found in North, Central-West and Southeast Brazil. The Church Of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints  is the third largest Brazil religion. They boast a membership of over one million one hundred thousand with almost two thousand congregations and 309 family history centers. Five temples are stretched across Brazil. Jehovahs Witnesses  is the fourth largest religion in Brazil. They have over 700,000 members. Eastern Orthodox  makes up the fifth largest religion in the country with over 500,000 members that came over with their Armenian, Greek, Lebanese, Russian, Syrian and Ukrainian immigrants in the past one hundred years. When the Portuguese landed in Brazil, the  country  was populated by native  Indians who had their own traditional religious practices. In the regions just north of Bahia, indigenous tribes still practice the Catimbo religion; a sect that is heavily influenced by spirits, shamanism, and omens. When African slaves began to be imported into Brazil, they brought with them their religious practices, many of which involved invoking the gods through chants or dances. Over time, these Afro Brazilian religious practices began mingling with Catholic and Protestant influences to create synthetic religions. Some of the more  popular  exponents  include  Candomble, which has a huge following in urban centers like  Rio de Janeiro, and Umbanda. Spiritism is also one of the significant, although minor, religions in Brazil. Spiritistic practices are based largely on ancient Amerindian cultures as well as the influence of the African cultures and customs that were introduced centuries ago, when slaves were brought over to Brazil from the ‘Dark Continent’ of Africa. Such tribes and cultures were particularly inclined towards the worship of spirits since they had not been influenced by more structured notions of creation, which hailed from a reliance on the teachings of Bible. The religions or belief systems found in Brazil other than the ones above include: * Muslims * Methodists * Episcopalians * Buddhists * Ayahuasca * Afro-Brazilian religions Xango, Batuque, Umbanda, Tambor de Mina * Hinduism * Islamists * Shinto believers * Judaists * Rastafarian * Brazil Religion Makes the Country Unique Every part of the country has been uniquely shaped by the religion practiced there. Celebrations, festivals, traditions, and customs are all practiced due to some religious or spiritual beginnings and purposes. For example, During the Holy Week before Easter, several Brazilian cities will celebrate Corpus Christi by artistically creating mosaics or carpets on the streets using mediums like flour, flower petals, shavings of wood, and coffee grounds. The results are stunning and a memorable way to celebrate this holy time of the year. The music, dancing, chanting, singing, or other activities all stem from one faith or another and make the people who they are. The entire culture of the Brazilian people is intertwined with religion or faith in some way. No wonder theyre such an amazing, diverse, and wonderful people!